Version: 12 (current) | Updated: 12/3/2025, 3:18:09 AM
Added PINAX metadata
@file_pinax:document {title: "Plutarch's Lives: Alexander the Great - Battle Narrative", creator: @plutarch, language: "grc"}
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@cilicia:place {region: "Southern Anatolia", modern_country: @turkey}
@syria:place {region: "Levant", modern_country: @syria}
@cydnus:place {type: "river", location: @cilicia}
@pinarus:place {type: "river", location: @cilicia}
@susa:place {region: "Persian Empire", modern_country: @iran}
@belus_temple:place {type: "temple", location: @cilicia}
@damascus:place {region: "Syria", modern_country: @syria}
@battle_of_issus:event {description: "Battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III near the Pinarus River in Cilicia", location: @pinarus, participants: [@alexander, @darius_iii]}
@letter_parmenio:document {type: "letter", author: @parmenio, recipient: @alexander, content: "Warning about Philip's plot to poison Alexander"}
@letter_antipater:document {type: "letter", author: @alexander, recipient: @antipater, content: "Report on the battle and description of a thigh wound"}
@medicine:concept {type: "poisoned drink", administered_by: @philip}
@sickness:concept {type: "illness", possible_causes: ["fatigue", "cold bath in Cydnus"]}
@alexander -> fought -> @darius_iii {event: @battle_of_issus}
@alexander -> delayed in -> @cilicia {reason: "sickness"}
@alexander -> suffered -> @sickness {when: @date_unknown}
@darius_iii -> descended from -> @susa {when: @date_unknown}
@parmenio -> sent -> @letter_parmenio {to: @alexander}
@alexander -> received -> @letter_parmenio {action: "read and hid"}
@philip -> offered -> @medicine {to: @alexander, intent: "poison"}
@alexander -> took -> @medicine {outcome: "survived"}
@alexander -> wounded thigh -> @wound_thigh:concept {by: @darius_iii, described_by: @chare}
@alexander -> wrote -> @letter_antipater {about: @battle_of_issus}
@alexander -> captured -> @chariot_of_darius:object {type: "chariot"}
@alexander -> captured -> @bow_of_darius:object {type: "bow"}
@alexander -> seized -> @wealth_of_barbarians:concept {location: @damascus}
@alexander -> ordered -> @leonnatus:person {action: "inform Dareius' family that he is alive"}
@leonnatus -> informed -> [@darius_wife:person, @darius_mother:person, @darius_daughters:person] {message: "Darius is not dead"}
@alexander -> permitted -> @persian_women:group {action: "burial of their kin", resources: "spolia"}
@alexander -> allowed -> @persian_women:group {action: "use of spoils for clothing and adornment"}
@alexander -> declared -> @kinghood:concept {statement: "This is to be a king"}
@file_plutarch_lives_alexanderpage_275 -> contains -> @battle_of_issus
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@file_plutarch_lives_alexanderpage_279 -> contains -> @battle_of_issus
@file_plutarch_lives_alexanderpage_281 -> contains -> @battle_of_issus
@file_plutarch_lives_alexanderpage_283 -> contains -> @battle_of_issusMore versions available (pagination not yet implemented)
Plutarch’s Lives ἐπίδοξος ἦν Ἀλεξάνδρῳ πολλὰ πράγματα καὶ μυρίας ἀντιλήψεις καὶ ἀσχολίας παρέξειν, 4ἐπερρώσθη πρὸς τὴν ἄνω στρατείαν μᾶλλον. ἤδη δὲ καὶ Δαρεῖος ἐκ Σούσων κατέβαινεν, ἐπαιρόμενός τε τῷ πλήθει τῆς δυνάμεως (ἑξήκοντα γὰρ ἦγε μυριάδας στρατοῦ), καί τινος ὀνείρου θαρρύνοντος αὐτόν, ὃν οἱ μάγοι πρὸς χάριν ἐξηγοῦντο μᾶλλον ἢ κατὰ τὸ εἰκός. ἔδοξε γὰρ πυρὶ νέμεσθαι πολλῷ τὴν Μακεδόνων φάλαγγα, τὸν δὲ Ἀλέξανδρον ἔχοντα στολὴν ἣν αὐτὸς ἐφόρει πρότερον ἀστάνδης ὢν βασιλέως, ὑπηρετεῖν αὐτῷ· παρελθόντα δὲ εἰς τὸ τοῦ Βήλου τέμενος ἀφανῆ 5γενέσθαι. διὰ τούτων, ὡς ἔοικεν, ὑπεδηλοῦτο παρὰ τοῦ θεοῦ λαμπρὰ μὲν γενήσεσθαι καὶ περιφανῆ τὰ τῶν Μακεδόνων, Ἀλέξανδρον δὲ τῆς μὲν Ἀσίας κρατήσειν, ὥσπερ ἐκράτησε Δαρεῖος ἐξ ἀστάνδου βασιλεὺς γενόμενος, ταχὺ δὲ σὺν δόξῃ τὸν βίον ἀπολείψειν. XIX. Ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον ἐθάρρησε καταγνοὺς δειλίαν Ἀλεξάνδρου πολὺν χρόνον ἐν Κιλικίᾳ διατρίψαντος. ἦν δὲ ἡ διατριβὴ διὰ νόσον, ἣν οἱ μὲν ἐκ κόπων, οἱ δὲ λουσαμένῳ ἐν τῷ τοῦ Κύδνου 2ῥεύματι καταπαγέντι1 προσπεσεῖν λέγουσι. τῶν μὲν οὖν ἄλλων ἰατρῶν οὐδεὶς ἐθάρρει βοηθήσειν, ἀλλὰ τὸν κίνδυνον οἰόμενοι πάσης ἰσχυρότερον εἶναι βοηθείας ἐφοβοῦντο τὴν ἐκ τοῦ σφαλῆναι διαβολὴν πρὸς τοὺς Μακεδόνας· Φίλιππος δ᾿ ὁ 1καταπαγέντι Bekker reads καὶ καταπαγέντι (and got chilled).274Alexander, xix. sea-board, who was thought likely to give Alexander abundant trouble and infinite annoyance, he was all the more encouraged for his expedition into the interior. Moreover, Dareius was already coming down to the coast from Susa, exalted in spirit by the magnitude of his forces (for he was leading an army of six hundred thousand men), and also encouraged by a certain dream, which the Magi interpreted in a way to please him rather than as the probabilities demanded. For he dreamed that the Macedonian phalanx was all on fire, and that Alexander, attired in a robe which he himself formerly used to wear when he was a royal courier, was waiting upon him, after which service he passed into the temple of Belus and disappeared. By this means, as it would seem, it was suggested to Dareius from Heaven that the exploits of the Macedonians would be conspicuous and brilliant, that Alexander would be master of Asia, just as Dareius became its master when he was made king instead of royal courier, and would speedily end his life with glory. XIX. Dareius was still more encouraged by Alexander’s long delay in Cilicia, which he attributed to cowardice. The delay was due, however, to a sickness, which assailed him in consequence of fatigues, according to some,1 but according to others, because he took a bath in the river Cydnus, whose waters were icy cold. Be that as it may, none of the other physicians had the courage to administer remedies, but thinking that the danger was too great to be overcome by any remedy whatever, they were afraid of the charges which would be made against them by the Macedonians in consequence of their failure; 1So Aristobulus (Arrian, Anab. ii. 4, 7).275
Plutarch’s Lives Ἀκαρνὰν μοχθηρὰ μὲν ἑώρα τὰ περὶ αὐτὸν ὄντα, τῇ δὲ φιλίᾳ πιστεύων, καὶ δεινὸν ἡγούμενος εἰ κινδυνεύοντι μὴ συγκινδυνεύσει μέχρι τῆς ἐσχάτης πείρας βοηθῶν καὶ παραβαλλόμενος, ἐπεχείρησε φαρμακείᾳ καὶ συνέπεισεν αὐτὸν ὑπομεῖναι καὶ πιεῖν, σπεύδοντα ῥωσθῆναι πρὸς τὸν πόλεμον. 3ἐν τούτῳ δὲ Παρμενίων ἔπεμψεν ἐπιστολὴν ἀπὸ στρατοπέδου, διακελευόμενος αὐτῷ φυλάξασθαι τὸν Φίλιππον ὡς ὑπὸ Δαρείου πεπεισμένον ἐπὶ δωρεαῖς μεγάλαις καὶ γάμῳ θυγατρὸς ἀνελεῖν675 Ἀλέξανδρον. ὁ δὲ τὴν ἐπιστολὴν ἀναγνοὺς καὶ μηδενὶ δείξας τῶν φίλων ὑπὸ τὸ προσκεφάλαιον ὑπέθηκεν. ὡς δὲ τοῦ καιροῦ παρόντος εἰσῆλθε μετὰ τῶν ἑταίρων ὁ Φίλιππος τὸ φάρμακον ἐν κύλικι κομίζων, ἐκείνῳ μὲν ἐπέδωκε τὴν ἐπιστολήν, αὐτὸς δὲ τὸ φάρμακον ἐδέξατο προθύμως καὶ 4ἀνυπόπτως, ὥστε θαυμαστὴν καὶ θεατρικὴν τὴν ὄψιν εἶναι, τοῦ μὲν ἀναγινώσκοντος, τοῦ δὲ πίνοντος, εἶτα ἅμα πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἀποβλεπόντων οὐχ ὁμοίως, ἀλλὰ τοῦ μὲν Ἀλεξάνδρου φαιδρῷ τῷ προσώπῳ καὶ διακεχυμένῳ τὴν πρὸς τὸν Φίλιππον εὐμένειαν καὶ πίστιν ἀποφαίνοντος, ἐκείνου δὲ πρὸς τὴν διαβολὴν ἐξισταμένου καὶ ποτὲ μὲν θεοκλυτοῦντος καὶ πρὸς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀνατείνοντος τὰς χεῖρας, ποτὲ δὲ τῇ κλίνῃ περιπίπτοντος καὶ παρακαλοῦντος τὸν Ἀλέξανδρον 5εὐθυμεῖν καὶ προσέχειν αὐτῷ. τὸ γὰρ φάρμακον ἐν ἀρχῇ κρατῆσαν τοῦ σώματος οἷον ἀπέωσε καὶ κατέδυσεν εἰς βάθος τὴν δύναμιν, ὥστε καὶ φωνὴν ἐπιλιπεῖν καὶ τὰ περὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν ἀσαφῆ καὶ μικρὰ κομιδῆ γενέσθαι, λιποθυμίας ἐπιπεσούσης. 276Alexander, xix. but Philip the Acarnanian, who saw that the king was in an evil plight, put confidence in his friendship, and thinking it a shameful thing not to share his peril by exhausting the resources of art in trying to help him even at great risk, prepared a medicine and persuaded him to drink it boldly, if he was anxious to regain his strength for the war. Meanwhile, however, Parmenio sent a letter to Alexander from the camp, urging him to be on his guard against Philip, for the reason that he had been persuaded by Dareius, with the promise of large gifts and a marriage with his daughter, to kill Alexander. Alexander read the letter and placed it under his pillow, without showing it to any one of his friends. When the time appointed was at hand, and Philip came in with the king’s companions, carrying the medicine in a cup, Alexander handed him the letter, while he himself took the medicine from him with readiness and no sign of suspicion. It was an amazing sight, then, and one well worthy of the stage,—the one reading the letter, the other drinking the medicine, and then both together turning their eyes upon one another, but not with the same expression; for Alexander, by his glad and open countenance, showed his good will towards Philip and his trust in him, while Philip was beside himself at the calumny, now lifting up his hands towards heaven and calling upon the gods to witness his innocence, and now falling upon the couch on which Alexander lay and beseeching him to be of good courage and obey his physician. For at first the medicine mastered the patient, and as it were drove back and buried deep his bodily powers, so that his voice failed, he fell into a swoon, and became almost wholly unconscious. However, he 277
Plutarch’s Lives οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ ταχέως ἀναληφθεὶς ὑπὸ τοῦ Φιλίππου καὶ ῥαΐσας αὑτὸν ἐπέδειξε τοῖς Μακεδόσιν· οὐ γὰρ ἐπαύοντο πρὶν ἰδεῖν τὸν Ἀλέξανδρον ἀθυμοῦντες. XX. Ἦν δέ τις ἐν τῷ Δαρείου στρατῷ πεφευγὼς ἐκ Μακεδονίας ἀνὴρ Μακεδών, Ἀμύντας, οὐκ ἄπειρος τῆς Ἀλεξάνδρου φύσεως. οὗτος ὡρμημένον ἰδὼν Δαρεῖον εἴσω τῶν στενῶν βαδίζειν ἐπ᾿ Ἀλέξανδρον, ἐδεῖτο κατὰ χώραν ὑπομένειν, ἐν πλάτος ἔχουσι πεδίοις καὶ ἀναπεπταμένοις πρὸς ἐλάττονας πλήθει τοσούτῳ διαμαχούμενον. 2ἀποκριναμένου δὲ Δαρείου δεδιέναι μὴ φθάσωσιν αὐτὸν ἀποδράντες οἱ πολέμιοι καὶ διαφυγὼν Ἀλέξανδρος, “Ἀλλὰ τούτου γε,” εἶπεν, “ὦ βασιλεῦ, χάριν θάρρει· βαδιεῖται γὰρ ἐκεῖνος ἐπὶ σέ, καὶ σχεδὸν ἤδη βαδίζει.” ταῦτα λέγων Ἀμύντας οὐκ ἔπειθεν, ἀλλ᾿ ἀναστὰς ἐπορεύετο Δαρεῖος εἰς Κιλικίαν, ἅμα δὲ Ἀλέξανδρος εἰς 3Συρίαν ἐπ᾿ ἐκεῖνον. ἐν δὲ τῇ νυκτὶ διαμαρτόντες ἀλλήλων αὖθις ἀνέστρεφον, Ἀλέξανδρος μὲν ἡδόμενός τε τῇ συντυχίᾳ καὶ σπεύδων ἀπαντῆσαι περὶ τὰ στενά, Δαρεῖος δὲ τὴν προτέραν ἀναλαβεῖν στρατοπεδείαν καὶ τῶν στενῶν ἐξελίξαι τὴν δύναμιν. ἤδη γὰρ ἐγνώκει παρὰ τὸ συμφέρον ἐμβεβληκὼς ἑαυτὸν εἰς χωρία θαλάττῃ καὶ ὄρεσι καὶ ποταμῷ διὰ μέσου ῥέοντι τῷ Πινάρῳ δύσιππα, καὶ διεσπασμένα πολλαχοῦ, καὶ πρὸς τῆς ὀλιγότητος τῶν πολεμίων ἔχοντα τὴν θέσιν. 4Ἀλεξάνδρῳ δὲ τὸν μὲν τόπον ἡ τύχη παρέσχεν, 278Alexander, xx. was speedily restored to his senses by Philip, and when he had recovered strength he showed himself to the Macedonians, who refused to be comforted until they had seen Alexander. XX. Now, there was in the army of Dareius a certain Macedonian who had fled from his country, Amyntas by name, and he was well acquainted with the nature of Alexander. This man, when he saw that Dareius was eager to attack Alexander within the narrow passes of the mountains, begged him to remain where he was, that he might fight a decisive battle with his vast forces against inferior numbers in plains that were broad and spacious. And when Dareius replied that he was afraid the enemy would run away before he could get at them, and Alexander thus escape him, “Indeed,” said Amyntas, “on this point, O king, thou mayest be without fear; for he will march against thee, nay, at this very moment, probably, he is on the march.” Dareius would not listen to these words of Amyntas, but broke camp and marched into Cilicia, and at the same time Alexander marched into Syria against him. But having missed one another in the night, they both turned back again, Alexander rejoicing in his good fortune, and eager to meet his enemy in the passes, while Dareius was as eager to extricate his forces from the passes and regain his former camping-ground. For he already saw that he had done wrong to throw himself into places which were rendered unfit for cavalry by sea and mountains and a river running through the middle (the Pinarus), which were broken up in many parts, and favoured the small numbers of his enemy. And not only was the place for the battle a gift of Fortune to Alexander, but 279
Plutarch’s Lives ἐστρατήγησε δὲ τῶν ἀπὸ τῆς τύχης ὑπαρχόντων πρὸς τὸ νικῆσαι βέλτιον, ὅς γε τοσούτῳ πλήθει τῶν βαρβάρων λειπόμενος ἐκείνοις μὲν οὐ παρέσχε κύκλωσιν, αὐτὸς δὲ τῷ δεξιῷ τὸ εὐώνυμον ὑπερβαλὼν καὶ γενόμενος κατὰ κέρας φυγὴν ἐποίησε τῶν καθ᾿ αὑτὸν βαρβάρων, ἐν πρώτοις ἀγωνιζόμενος, ὥστε τρωθῆναι ξίφει τὸν μηρόν, ὡς μὲν Χάρης φησίν, ὑπὸ Δαρείου (συμπεσεῖν γὰρ 5αὐτοὺς εἰς χεῖρας), Ἀλέξανδρος δὲ περὶ τῆς μάχης ἐπιστέλλων τοῖς περὶ τὸν Ἀντίπατρον οὐκ εἴρηκεν ὅστις ἦν ὁ τρώσας, ὅτι δὲ τρωθείη τὸν μηρὸν ἐγχειριδίῳ, δυσχερὲς δ᾿ οὐδὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ τραύματος συμβαίη γέγραφε. Νικήσας δὲ λαμπρῶς καὶ καταβαλὼν ὑπὲρ ἕνδεκα μυριάδας τῶν πολεμίων, Δαρεῖον μὲν οὐχ εἷλε τέτταρας σταδίους ἢ πέντε προλαβόντα τῇ φυγῇ, τὸ δὲ ἅρμα καὶ τὸ τόξον αὐτοῦ λαβὼν 6ἐπανῆλθε· καὶ κατέλαβε τοὺς Μακεδόνας τὸν μὲν ἄλλον πλοῦτον ἐκ τοῦ βαρβαρικοῦ στρατοπέδου φέροντας καὶ ἄγοντας ὑπερβάλλοντα πλήθει, καίπερ εὐζώνων πρὸς τὴν μάχην παραγενομένων καὶ τὰ πλεῖστα τῆς ἀποσκευῆς ἐν Δαμασκῷ καταλιπόντων, τὴν δὲ Δαρείου σκηνὴν ἐξῃρηκότας676 ἐκείνῳ, θεραπείας τε λαμπρᾶς καὶ παρασκευῆς 7καὶ χρημάτων πολλῶν γέμουσαν. εὐθὺς οὖν ἀποδυσάμενος τὰ ὅπλα πρὸς τὸ λουτρὸν ἐβάδιζεν, εἰπών· “Ἴωμεν ἀπολουσόμενοι τὸν ἀπὸ τῆς μάχης ἱδρῶτα τῷ Δαρείου λουτρῷ.” καί τις τῶν ἑταίρων “Μὰ τὸν Δία” εἶπεν, “ἀλλὰ τῷ Ἀλεξάνδρου· τὰ γὰρ τῶν ἡττωμένων εἶναί τε δεῖ 8καὶ προσαγορεύεσθαι τοῦ κρατοῦντος.” ὡς δὲ 280Alexander, xx. his generalship was better than the provisions of Fortune for his victory. For since he was so vastly inferior in numbers to the Barbarians, he gave them no opportunity to encircle him, but, leading his right wing in person, extended it past the enemy’s left, got on their flank, and routed the Barbarians who were opposed to him, fighting among the foremost, so that he got a sword-wound in the thigh. Chares says this wound was given him by Dareius, with whom he had a hand-to-hand combat, but Alexander, in a letter to Antipater about the battle, did not say who it was that gave him the wound; he wrote that he had been wounded in the thigh with a dagger, but that no serious harm resulted from the wound. Although he won a brilliant victory and destroyed more than a hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, he did not capture Dareius, who got a start of four or five furlongs in his flight; but he did take the king’s chariot, and his bow, before he came back from the pursuit. He found his Macedonians carrying off the wealth from the camp of the Barbarians, and the wealth was of surpassing abundance, although its owners had come to the battle in light marching order and had left most of their baggage in Damascus; he found, too, that his men had picked out for him the tent of Dareius, which was full to overflowing with gorgeous servitors and furniture, and many treasures. Straightway, then, Alexander put off his armour and went to the bath, saying: “Let us go and wash off the sweat of the battle in the bath of Dareius.” “No, indeed,” said one of his companions, “but rather in that of Alexander; for the property of the conquered must belong to the conqueror, and be called his.” And when he 281
Plutarch’s Lives εἶδε μὲν ὅλκια καὶ κρωσσοὺς καὶ πυέλους καὶ ἀλαβάστρους, πάντα χρυσοῦ, ἠσκημένα περιττῶς, ὠδώδει δὲ θεσπέσιον οἷον ὑπὸ ἀρωμάτων καὶ μύρων ὁ οἶκος, ἐκ δὲ τούτου παρῆλθεν εἰς σκηνὴν ὕψει τε καὶ μεγέθει καὶ τῷ περὶ τὴν στρωμνὴν καὶ τραπέζας καὶ τὸ δεῖπνον αὐτοῦ κόσμῳ θαύματος ἀξίαν, διαβλέψας πρὸς τοὺς ἑταίρους, “Τοῦτο ἦν, ὡς ἔοικεν,” ἔφη, “τὸ βασιλεύειν.” XXI. Τρεπομένῳ δὲ πρὸς τὸ δεῖπνον αὐτῷ φράζει τις ἐν τοῖς αἰχμαλώτοις ἀγομένας μητέρα καὶ γυναῖκα Δαρείου καὶ θυγατέρας δύο παρθένους ἰδούσας τὸ ἅρμα καὶ τὰ τόξα κόπτεσθαι καὶ θρηνεῖν, ὡς ἀπολωλότος ἐκείνου. συχνὸν οὖν ἐπισχὼν χρόνον Ἀλέξανδρος, καὶ ταῖς ἐκείνων τύχαις μᾶλλον ἢ ταῖς ἑαυτοῦ ἐμπαθὴς γενόμενος, πέμπει Λεοννάτον, ἀπαγγεῖλαι κελεύσας ὡς οὔτε Δαρεῖος τέθνηκεν οὔτε Ἀλέξανδρον δεδιέναι χρή· 2Δαρείῳ γὰρ ὑπὲρ ἡγεμονίας πολεμεῖν, ἐκείναις δὲ πάντα ὑπάρξειν ὧν καὶ Δαρείου βασιλεύοντος ἠξιοῦντο. τοῦ δὲ λόγου ταῖς γυναιξὶν ἡμέρου καὶ χρηστοῦ φανέντος ἔτι μᾶλλον τὰ τῶν ἔργων ἀπήντα φιλάνθρωπα. θάψαι γὰρ ὅσους ἐβούλοντο Περσῶν ἔδωκεν, ἐσθῆτι καὶ κόσμῳ χρησαμέναις ἐκ τῶν λαφύρων, θεραπείας τε καὶ τιμῆς ἣν εἶχον οὐδ᾿ ὁτιοῦν ἀφεῖλε, συντάξεις δὲ καὶ μείζονας 3ἐκαρποῦντο τῶν προτέρων. ἡ δὲ καλλίστη καὶ βασιλικωτάτη χάρις ἦν παρ᾿ αὐτοῦ γυναιξὶ γενναίαις γενομέναις αἰχμαλώτοις καὶ σώφροσι μήτε ἀκοῦσαί τι μήτε ὑπονοῆσαι μήτε προσδοκῆσαι 282Alexander, xxi. saw the basins and pitchers and tubs and caskets, all of gold, and curiously wrought, while the apartment was marvellously fragrant with spices and unguents, and when he passed from this into a tent which was worthy of admiration for its size and height, and for the adornment of the couch and tables and banquet prepared for him, he turned his eyes upon his companions and said: “This, as it would seem, is to be a king.” XXI. As he was betaking himself to supper, someone told him that among the prisoners were the mother, wife, and two unmarried daughters of Dareius, and that at sight of his chariot and bow they beat their breasts and lamented, believing that he was dead. Accordingly, after a considerable pause, more affected by their affliction than by his own success, he sent Leonnatus, with orders to tell them that Dareius was not dead, and that they need have no fear of Alexander; for it was Dareius upon whom he was waging war for supremacy, but they should have everything which they used to think their due when Dareius was undisputed king. If this message was thought by the women to be mild and kindly, still more did the actions of Alexander prove to be humane. For he gave them permission to bury whom they pleased of the Persians, and to use for this purpose raiment and adornment from the spoils, and he abated not one jot of their honourable maintenance, nay, they enjoyed even larger allowances than before. But the most honourable and most princely favour which these noble and chaste women received from him in their captivity was that they neither heard, nor suspected, nor 283
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